Direct Instruction: Effective for What and for Whom? *

For a number of years, "process-product" re searchers have studied the relationship between teacher behaviors (process) and student achievement (product) with the hope of determining what teacher behaviors will lead to increases in student achieve ment and attitude. At last, this research has borne fruit. Several reviewers of process-product research have recently concluded that effective teaching is characterized by a pattern of teaching behaviors that they have called "direct instruction." (See, for ex ample: Gage, 1978; Good, 1979; Medley, 1979; Rosenshine, 1979.) According to Barak Rosenshine (1979), direct in struction has the following characteristics: an aca demic focus; a teacher-centered focus; little student choice of activity; use of large groups rather than small groups for instruction; and use of factual ques tions and controlled practice in instruction. Thomas Good (1979) describes direct instruction as "active teaching":